The Defence Horizon Journal - Podcasts

Modern conflicts are increasingly fought in the cyber and information domains, where effects unfold primarily in the cognitive rather than the physical sphere. Addressing such non-kinetic threats requires multidisciplinary expertise and close cooperation between public defence institutions and private-sector innovators. This paper outlines key factors for efficient cooperation and proposes a criteria-based framework that systematically defines the knowledge, skills, and capacities needed to counter Cognitive Warfare.


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Despite two centuries of technological progress, Clausewitz’s concept of friction remains a vital analytical lens for warfighting in the age of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning. This article interprets friction in the context of cognition, focusing on algorithms and human-machine miscommunication to address the gap between educational practice and officers’ preparation for operational reality.


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The Shahed-136, an Iranian-manufactured loitering munition built largely from foam and plywood, has emerged as a very effective weapons system. The Shahed-136 drone has demonstrated that low-cost, mass-produced aerial munitions can systematically overwhelm sophisticated and expensive air defence architectures. Iran's direct deployment of Shaheds against Israel in 2025, followed by Russia's relentless campaign averaging 140 drone strikes per day over Ukraine, established saturation as a viable operational method. Now in February 2026, the use of Shahed-136 by Iran and LUCAS by the U.S. revealed a new doctrine of attrition warfare centred on saturation and economic exhaustion.


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Since the 2023 Vilnius Summit, NATO has recognised industrial capacity as a core element of deterrence. The Alliance has endorsed the Defence Production Action Plan, adopted the Industrial Capacity Expansion Pledge, and aligned with parallel US and EU initiatives, the National Defence Industrial Strategy and the Act in Support of Ammunition Production to accelerate output, standardisation, and supply-chain resilience. Yet policy vocabulary has advanced faster than procurement logic. The return of industrial war, combined with a sensor-saturated battlefield, means that design choices now carry direct operational consequences. Manufacturability, supply substitution, repairability, and distributed production potential are variables of combat endurance. This article argues that NATO's real gap is not only an industrial-capacity gap, but also an industrial-operational doctrine gap: the Alliance has not yet fully integrated production resilience and battlefield transparency into a mature procurement doctrine suited to prolonged high-intensity conflict.


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