Fakultät für Geowissenschaften - Digitale Hochschulschriften der LMU Archiv

Die Stadtplanung ist zunehmend mit sozialräumlichen Segregationsprozessen und „gespaltenen Städten“ konfrontiert, die mit gesellschaftlicher Marginalisierung und Ausgrenzung sozial benachteiligter Bevölkerungsgruppen einhergehen. Insbesondere Kinder und Jugendliche mit Migrationshintergrund wachsen zum Teil in problembelasteten Stadtvierteln auf, in denen die einheimische Bevölkerung zur Minderheit geworden ist, was zur Entwicklung von Parallelgesellschaften oder ethnischen Enklaven führen kann. Auch im Bildungssystem lassen sich vielfältige Aspekte von Integration und Segregation beobachten. Besonders gravierend stellt sich die Bildungssituation für die Bewohner sogenannter Problemviertel dar, unter denen Immigranten mit niedrigem sozioökonomischen Status meistens überrepräsentiert sind und deren Kinder sich nur geringe Chancen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt einrechnen können. In Luxemburg ist man sich der Bedeutung dieses Themas zunehmend bewusst. Die besondere Sprachensituation Luxemburgs sowie die außergewöhnlich hohe Zahl an Migranten führen dazu, dass sich auch in Luxemburg sozialräumliche Segregationsprozesse identifizieren lassen. Im Rahmen der Sozialplanung Luxemburgs wird die soziale Bevölkerungsstruktur genauer analysiert. Integration fängt bereits in der Schule, wenn nicht sogar in der Vorschule an. Deswegen sind Maßnahmen zur Integration von sozial benachteiligten Kindern in den Schulen und im Umfeld der Schulen besonders wichtig. Mein Promotionskonzept bezieht sich auf die Erweiterung der schulischen und außerschulischen Fördermöglichkeiten, die erforderlich sind, um hauptsächlich in sozial benachteiligten Stadtvierteln der Stadt Luxemburg ein lokales Netzwerk zu schaffen, das erlaubt Bewohner und insbesondere Kinder besser zu integrieren. Ein zentrales Anliegen der Arbeit ist deswegen die Untersuchung der Kooperation zwischen Schulen und der Gemeinde in den jeweiligen Schulbezirken. Dabei stellt die Analyse des sozialen Hintergrunds der Schüler und die Gegebenheiten des jeweiligen Einzugsgebietes der Schule den Ausgangspunkt für diese Untersuchung dar. Eine rein quantitativ ausgerichtete statistische Analyse reicht natürlich nicht aus, um die „Problemschulen“ zu untersuchen. Ergänzend zu den Ergebnissen der Berechnung eines sozialen Indexes für die Schulbezirke werden in ausgewählten Beispielen qualitative Fallstudien durchgeführt, in denen die Wechselwirkungen zwischen schulischen Aktivitäten und kommunalplanerischen Mitteln genauer untersucht werden.

In general, an understanding of the complex processes acting before and during volcanic eruptions is approached from various different sides, e.g. laboratory experiments on fragmentation and/or bubble burst eruption mechanisms, petrological analysis of the eruptive products and various geophysical monitoring and source localization techniques. Each of these techniques can deliver valuable insights by adding pieces of information about the physical processes that drive the volcanic activity. However, often studies are focussing on a single aspect of the process, without setting the results in a more general context. Often, this strategy is absolutely valid, when the focus is laid on a single piece in the complex chain of processes taking place in volcanic eruptions. This must fail when the results aim to suggest a valid model for the combined observations at volcanoes using the above described techniques. The resulting models of volcanic source mechanisms and eruptive features can therefore lead to biased assumptions. This study aims to close this gap between laboratory experiments, petro-chemical analysis and modern geophysical monitoring and source localization techniques in a case study of Mt. Yasur (Vanuatu) volcano. The presented laboratory experiments on explosive volcanic eruptions upon rapid decompression show that decompression rate is the dening parameter in the experiments and that a scaling to large-scale processes is valid. Furthermore, a model is presented that correlates measured particle velocities to decompression rate and initial gas-overpressure. This model is used to estimate source volumes and overpressures at Volcan de Colima (Mexico) and Mt. Yasur (Vanuatu). A petrographically and geochemically characterization of Mt. Yasurs eruptive products suggests a shallow magma-mingling process at both of Mt. Yasurs active craters, perhaps due to rejuvenation of material slumped from the crater walls into an open conduit system. A study on the time-reversal imaging technique and its ability to detect the details of finite rupture (or time-variant) processes shows that the limitations of TR imaging start where the source stops being point-localised with respect to the used wavelength. Inversion of the source mechanisms of Strombolian explosions at Mt. Yasur are performed using a multi-parameter dataset consisting of seismic, acoustic and Doppler-radar data. Time-reversal imaging and moment tensor inversion are used to invert the source location of the seismic long-period (f < 1Hz) signals, which is supposed to refl ect fluid movement at depth. The source is located in the north-east of the crater region in a depth of several hundred meters. Furthermore, the source volume of the radiated infrasound signals is estimated from fundamental resonance frequencies. The results showed that the maximum particle velocity measured with the Doppler radar correlates nicely with the estimated source volumes lengths. The inverted seismic moment does not show any correlation with the estimated slug sizes, i.e. the slug size does not map in seismic moment. This is an important information, as it states that a larger source volume does not necessarily produces a larger seismic moment. From these combined results, a common feeder system for all active craters at Mt. Yasur is proposed. The differences in event recurrence rate at the three active craters are believed to be controlled by either the conduit geometry or variations in degassing or cooling rate. Strombolian-type eruptions at Mt. Yasur are suggested to be due to the burst of gas slugs with lengths and overpressures comparable to volcanoes showing similar eruptive patterns. The results illustrate the importance of combined studies that overcome the limitations of single disciplines. In this way, a more comprehensive view of volcanic eruptions and the associated observations is possible. Such a multi-disciplinary approach will contribute to a better understanding of volcanic processes and the associated hazards.

Volcanic glass is often considered an ideal recording material for paleointensities. Experiments to determine the ancient field intensity are time consuming and mostly have low success rates. Studies have shown that the usage of glassy samples can increase success rates very much as the remanence carriers are in or close to the single domain range. Further, effects like magnetic anisotropy and cooling rate correction can be corrected for. The aim of this thesis is to clarify whether an ideal behavior can be expected when working on volcanic glass. Studies were done on samples of different compositions (phonolite, pantellerite and rhyolite) and varying degrees of devitrification/hydration. Rock magnetic measurements were done to determine the remanence carriers of remelted glass samples of phonolitic composition. Single domain (SD) titanomagnetites were identied to carry the stable remanence and in the course of paleointensity experiments the validity of a cooling rate correction method that makes use of the natural cooling rate of the samples as determined from relaxation geospeedometry was shown. After correction the samples reproduce the intensity of the previously applied field. For the unhydrated samples from Montana Blanca, Tenerife (phonolitic composition, 2 ka old) and from Mayor Island, New Zealand (pantelleritic composition, 8 ka old) remanence carriers in or close to the SD range were found and high quality well defined paleointensities were obtained. Success rates of the paleointensity experiments were 70%. The results compare very well with other paleointensities from close-by studies at the respective times. These data support the ideal recording behavior of volcanic glass. Yet, rock magnetic and paleointensity experiments on devitrified and hydrated samples give contrary results: It was found that hydration and devitrification result in a loss of magnetic stability and remanence carriers, an increase in grain size of magnetic particles and a decrease of the "apparent" paleointensity. A possible explanation for these obsevations is a partial or full overprint of the original thermoremanent magnetization by a chemical remanence. It is therefore obvious that suchlike altered glasses are far from being ideal recorders. Great care has thus to be taken when sampling volcanic glass. If pristine glass is sampled, an ideal behavior during paleointensity experiments is probable and - as the here presented data suggest - a good estimate of the ancient field intensity is likely to be gained. If, however, the glass is unknowingly altered the determined paleointensities are prone to underestimate the true field value.

Soil moisture is one of the key variables controlling the water and energy exchanges between Earth’s surface and the atmosphere. Therefore, remote sensing based soil moisture information has potential applications in many disciplines. Besides numerical weather forecasting and climate research these include agriculture and hydrologic applications like flood and drought forecasting. The first satellite specifically designed to deliver operational soil moisture products, SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity), was launched 2009 by the European Space Agency (ESA). SMOS is a passive microwave radiometer working in the L-band of the microwave domain, corresponding to a frequency of roughly 1.4 GHz and relies on a new concept. The microwave radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface is measured as brightness temperatures in several look angles. A radiative transfer model is used in an inversion algorithm to retrieve soil moisture and vegetation optical depth, a measure for the vegetation attenuation of the soil’s microwave emission. For the application of passive microwave remote sensing products a proper validation and uncertainty assessment is essential. As these sensors have typical spatial resolutions in the order of 40 – 50 km, a validation that relies solely on ground measurements is costly and labour intensive. Here, environmental modelling can make a valuable contribution. Therefore the present thesis concentrates on the question which contribution coupled land surface and radiative transfer models can make to the validation and analysis of passive microwave remote sensing products. The objective is to study whether it is possible to explain known problems in the SMOS soil moisture products and to identify potential approaches to improve the data quality. The land surface model PROMET (PRocesses Of Mass and Energy Transfer) and the radiative transfer model L-MEB (L-band microwave emission of the Biosphere) are coupled to simulate land surface states, e.g. temperatures and soil moisture, and the resulting microwave emission. L-MEB is also used in the SMOS soil moisture processor to retrieve soil moisture and vegetation optical depth simultaneously from the measured microwave emission. The study area of this work is the Upper Danube Catchment, located mostly in Southern Germany. Since model validation is essential if model data are to be used as reference, both models are validated on different spatial scales with measurements. The uncertainties of the models are quantified. The root mean squared error between modelled and measured soil moisture at several measuring stations on the point scale is 0.065 m3/m3. On the SMOS scale it is 0.039 m3/m3. The correlation coefficient on the point scale is 0.84. As it is essential for the soil moisture retrieval from passive microwave data that the radiative transfer modelling works under local conditions, the coupled models are used to assess the radiative transfer modelling with L-MEB on the local and SMOS scales in the Upper Danube Catchment. In doing so, the emission characteristics of rape are described for the first time and the soil moisture retrieval abilities of L-MEB are assessed with a newly developed LMEB parameterization. The results show that the radiative transfer modelling works well under most conditions in the study area. The root mean squared error between modelled and airborne measured brightness temperatures on the SMOS scale is less than 6 – 9 K for the different look angles. The coupled models are used to analyse SMOS brightness temperatures and vegetation optical depth data in the Upper Danube Catchment in Southern Germany. Since the SMOS soil moisture products are degraded in Southern Germany and in different other parts of the world these analyses are used to narrow down possible reasons for this. The thorough analysis of SMOS brightness temperatures for the year 2011 reveals that the quality of the measurements is degraded like in the SMOS soil moisture product. This points towards radio frequency interference problems (RFI), that are known, but have not yet been studied thoroughly. This is consistent with the characteristics of the problems observed in the SMOS soil moisture products. In addition to that it is observed that the brightness temperatures in the lower look angles are less reliable. This finding could be used to improve the brightness temperature filtering before the soil moisture retrieval. An analysis of SMOS optical depth data in 2011 reveals that this parameter does not contain valuable information about vegetation. Instead, an unexpected correlation with SMOS soil moisture is found. This points towards problems with the SMOS soil moisture retrieval, possibly under the influence of RFI. The present thesis demonstrates that coupled land surface and radiative transfer models can make a valuable contribution to the validation and analysis of passive microwave remote sensing products. The unique approach of this work incorporates modelling with a high spatial and temporal resolution on different scales. This makes detailed process studies on the local scale as well as analyses of satellite data on the SMOS scale possible. This could be exploited for the validation of future satellite missions, e.g. SMAP (Soil Moisture Active and Passive) which is currently being prepared by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). Since RFI seems to have a considerable influence on the SMOS data due to the gained insights and the quality of the SMOS products is very good in other parts of the world, the RFI containment and mitigation efforts carried out since the launch of SMOS should be continued.

Satellitengestützte geodätische Messmethoden, insbesondere GPS (Global Positioning System), sind von zunehmender Bedeutung in den Geowissenschaften und erlauben neue Einblicke in verschiedenste geophysikalische Prozesse. Zeitreihen hochpräziser Positionsmessungen von Punkten auf der Erdoberfläche ermöglichen unter anderem die Bestimmung von Relativgeschwindigkeiten tektonischer Einheiten, die Messung von Verformungsraten der Kruste an aktiven Störungen und Vulkanen und erlauben es Rückschlüsse auf die rheologischen Parameter der Lithosphäre und der Asthenosphäre zu ziehen. Mit zunehmender Länge und Genauigkeit der Zeitreihen ist es möglich, auch zeitabhängige dynamische tektonische Prozesse in GPS Zeitreihen zu identifizieren. Die Schwierigkeiten in der Interpretation der Messungen bestehen unter anderem darin, von Punktmessungen auf kontinuierliche Deformationsmuster zu schließen, zeitlich korreliertes Rauschen zu quantifizieren, um realistische Fehlergrenzen anzugeben, und schließlich zeitabhängige tektonische Signale von zeitabhängigem Rauschen zu trennen. In dieser Arbeit werden Lösungsansätze zu diesen Punkten erarbeitet. Zunächst wird ein Algorithmus entwickelt, durch den aus einem diskreten Geschwindigkeitsfeld, ohne Vorgabe weiterer Randbedingungen (Geometrie der Störungen etc.), der kontinuierliche zweidimensionale Tensor der Verformungsraten abgeleitet werden kann. Aus der Tensoranalysis erhält man Informationen zur maximalen Scher- und Rotationsverformungsrate, sowie zur Dilatationsrate. Die Anwendung dieses Algorithmus auf verschiedene Datensätze in Südkalifornien und Island zeigt, dass hiermit sowohl aktive Störungen identifiziert, als auch Informationen uber Bruchflächen von Erdbeben aus ko- bzw. postseismischen GPS Messungen abgeleitet werden können. Außerdem wurden zeitabhängige Signale in den GPS Geschwindigkeitsfeldern ersichtlich. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit wird ein weiterer Algorithmus eingeführt, der unter Berücksichtigung der Effekte zeitabhängigen Rauschens die Berechnung der Varianz innerhalb von GPS Geschwindigkeitsfeldern ermöglicht. Somit wird außerdem der Notwendigkeit Rechnung getragen, realistische Fehlergrenzen als Grundlage zur Konfidenzabschätzung von Modellen zu definieren. Dieser Algorithmus basiert auf der Allan Varianz, die bei der Messung der Stabilität von Oszillatoren Verwendung findet und ausschließlich im Zeitbereich berechnet wird. Er wird ausführlich mit verschiedenen synthetischen Zeitreihen und Fehlermodellen getestet und auf einen südafrikanischen Datensatz angewandt. Der Vergleich mit Methoden, die auf einer Spektralanalyse oder einem Maximum Likelihood Estimator beruhen zeigt, dass der relativ schnelle Algorithmus stabile und verlässliche Angaben liefert. Zuletzt wird der entwickelte Algorithmus erweitert, um die Kovarianz der Geschwindigkeit zu erhalten. Die Anwendung auf verschiedene Datensätze an konvergenten Plattengrenzen, wo regelmäßig Kriechereignisse in Form von Slow Slip Events auftreten, zeigt für einige Stationen stark richtungsabhängige und räumlich korrelierte Geschwindigkeitsfehler. Des Weiteren konnte eine Zeitkorrelation beobachtet werden, die auf einen tektonischen Ursprung der Ereignisse hinweist. Die korrigierten Zeitreihen, von denen die modellierten Ereignisse subtrahiert wurden, haben dagegen richtungsunabhängig eine Zeitkorrelation, die etwa dem 1/f Rauschen entspricht, und weisen keine räumlich korrelierten stark exzentrischen Fehlerellipsen auf. Die Analyse ermöglicht somit eine qualitative Bewertung der Modelle zeitabhängiger Signale in GPS Zeitreihen.

The Earth's magnetic field underwent hundreds of reversals during its history. But within a ~40 Myr span (84-125 Ma) during the Cretaceous no reversal happened. For comparison, the second longest chron length during the last 167 Ma is ~5 Myr. Thus, the ~40 Myr long chron is known as a superchron and is called Cretaceous Normal Superchron (CNS). Two other superchrons are now established: the Permian-Carboniferous Reversed Superchron and the Ordovician Reversed Superchron. Why do these superchrons exist? Are they an extreme chron duration of the same statistical distribution? Or, do superchrons reflect a distinct dynamo regime separate from an oft-reversing regime. Are the onset and end of superchrons triggered by changes in the physical conditions of outer core convection? For example, instabilities within the convection in the outer core are suspected to trigger reversals. A `low energy' geodynamo during the superchron could stem from less turbulent convection. But also the concept of a `high energy' geodynamo during a superchron is conceivable: stronger convection would stabilize the field and increase the field intensity. These different dynamo regimes could be be triggered by changing the temperature conditions at the core mantle boundary (CMB), for example with the eruption of deep mantle plumes or the descent of cold material such as subducted slabs. Insights into past geodynamo regimes can be learned primarily from two paleomagnetic methods: paleosecular variation (variation in field directions) and paleointensity. For the former, we collected 534 samples for a paleosecular variation study from a 1400 m-long, paleontologically well-described section in northern Peru. Thermal demagnetization isolates stable magnetization directions carried by greigite. Arguments are equivocal whether this remanence is syn-diagenetic, acquired during the Cretaceous normal superchron, or a secondary overprint, acquired during a chron of solely normal polarity in the upper Cenozoic, yet pre-Bruhnes (>800 kyr). We explore the ramifications on the S value, which quantifies paleosecular variation, that arises from directional analysis, sun compass correction, bedding correction, sampling frequency, outlying directions and different recording media. The sum of these affects can readily raise the S value by more than 20%. S values from northern Peru are indistinguishable from other S values for the Cretaceous normal superchron as well as those for the last 5 Ma. Summing over all the potential uncertainties, we come to the pessimistic conclusion that the S value is an unsuitable parameter to constrain geodynamo models. Alternatively, no statistical difference in paleosecular variation exists during much of the Cretaceous normal superchron and during the last 5 Ma. Even though the S value might be unsuitable, we wanted to understand why the S value is latitude dependent. The origin of this latitude dependency is widely attributed to a combination of time-varying dipole and non-dipole components. The slope and magnitude of S are taken as a basis to understand the geomagnetic field and its evolution. Here we show that S stems from a mathematical aberration of the conversion from directions to poles, hence directional populations better quantify local estimates of paleosecular variation. Of the various options, k is likely the best choice, and the uncertainty on k(N) was already worked out. As we came to the pessimistic conclusion that the S value might not be the best parameter to quantify the `energy state' of the geodynamo during a superchron, we also carried out a paleointensity study on 128 samples from volcanic rocks in Northern Peru and Ecuador. Oxidation of the remanence carriers was a problem. Only one site gave reliable results. Two methods of paleointensity determination were applied to these rocks. The results of both methods agree quite well with each other and also with previous studies from other sites. Our results suggest that the field intensity towards the end of the superchron seems to quite similar to today's magnetic moment. Thus, it can be concluded that the `energy state' of the geodynamo was not substantially different during the Cretaceous Normal Superchron compared to reversing times. Why do superchrons exist? One possible explanation is that paleomagnetism is not able to resolve different energy states of the geodynamo, neither with paleosecular variation nor with paleointensity. This was suggested by some dynamo simulations in which the heat flux across the core-mantle boundary was kept the same, but the resulting paleosecular variation, paleointensity and frequency of reversals differed a lot. Another possible explanation is that a superchron is an intrinsic feature of the distribution of magnetic polarity chron lengths. Thus, no changes of the convection in the outer core are needed to trigger a superchron.

Essential information about the activity or even the mechanics of tectonic and erosional processes can be extracted from their surface expression. For this purpose, it is necessary to appropriately constrain the temporal as well as the spatial framework, in which to consider a specific process. While recently developed dating techniques, such as thermochronology or radiocarbon dating, allow to assess the age of landforms and therefore rates of tectonic and erosional processes, detailed spatial information is also required to assess these rates correctly. Due to a lack of appropriate topographic data in the past it was sometimes challenging to reliably approximate the spatial framework, because the size of a particular landform can often cover a wide range of spatial scales. Recently available, conventional topographic data, such as those of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, substantially improved the definition of an appropriate spatial framework due to their spatial coverage and resolution of down to less than 1 m. However, to constrain this framework at a detail beyond the resolution of several decimeter terrestrial laser scanning provides a highly efficient approach. This technique permits the rapid acquisition (within minutes) of tremendous amounts of topographic data with both, a high resolution of a few centimeters and a high accuracy of a few millimeters. High-resolution topographic maps of a certain area of the surface of the Earth are derived from individual laser-scanner measurements, that in turn allow to characterize the in-situ geomorphic setting at great detail. Moreover, repeated measurements of this area allow to quantify morphological changes thereby supporting the survey of surface processes on short-term scales ranging from days up to several years. The former approach is best suited for tectono- and the latter one for fluvial-geomorphic studies, and we present results from two case studies that are either based on single or repeated laser-scanner measurements. In the first case, we combined field mapping and high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM) analysis to evaluate the detailed meter- to hundred meter-scale structure and surface expression of one flank of the Rex Hills pressure ridge in the western United States. Based on terrestrial laser scanning (Riegl LMS-Z420i) we derived a DEM with cm-scale resolution and extracted high-resolution topographic cross-sections. This enabled us to identify fault scarps and determine their relative ages and geometry. In the second case, we carried out a detailed field mapping of erosion and sedimentation patterns in the Alp Valley, central Switzerland, to assess its Holocene evolution. Simultaneously, we conducted repeated high-resolution (less than 1 cm locally) laser-scanning surveys (Topcon TLS-1000) along two tributaries, the Erlenbach and Vogelbach, to determine channel-morphology changes and the nature of shortest-term sediment transport by comparing the individual DEMs derived from these measurements, as well as to evaluate the context to the longer-term evolution of the Alp Valley. Both case studies, however, highlight the potential of medium-range laser scanners with measurement distances of up to hundreds of meters. Such scanners are most appropriate to efficiently analyze closely-spaced fault scarps across a broad range of spatial scales, and to document complex morphologic changes in small mountainous torrents due to sediment transport. Moreover, terrestrial laser scanning is a key tool to monitor surface processes, but the insights gained from this method are generally evaluated best in the context of further data sets including geochronological, structural, subsurface, or climate data. Surface processes, in particular erosion, sediment transport, and deposition in sedimentary basins are intermittent in space and time challenging both, the appropriate definition of a spatiotemporal framework addressed above and a comprehensive process understanding. A major objective of this thesis is to contribute to a better understanding of scale linkage concerning these processes. We therefore first carried out a comprehensive comparison of short- to long-term erosion measurements from the Alps based on an approach originally established to evaluate the significance of geologic and geodetic measurements along intra-continental faults on time scales of millions to tens of years. In a second step, we re-assessed the sediment budget of the Alps, a data set that is usually considered to be an appropriate measure of long-term erosion in the Alps. The two major results of both studies indicate that: short- and medium-term erosion in the Alps over years to ten thousands of years is dominantly influenced by climate and weather variability, e.g., due to seasonal differences in the amount of precipitation; whereas long-term erosion over millions of years is controlled by tectonic processes.