Fakultät für Physik - Digitale Hochschulschriften der LMU - Teil 02/05 Archiv
250 Episoden
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Diese Arbeit befasst sich mit astrophysikalischen Anwendungen von Streuprozessen in diffusen Gasen innerhalb von Galaxien bzw. Galaxienhaufen. Anhand von aktuellen Beobachtungsdaten wird versucht, Aussagen über die zurückliegende Entwicklung der Leuchtkraft von astrophysikalischen Objekten, wie supermassiven schwarzen Löchern und relativistischen Jets, zu gewinnen, die innerhalb dieser diffusen Gase Strahlung erzeugen.
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In the past years relativistic (magneto)hydrodynamic simulations have been used extensively to study the time-dependent hydrodynamic properties of extra galactic jets. While these simulations have been very successful in studying the formation, collimation, propagation and termination of relativistic jets, the models used to compute synthetic images from the hydrodynamic properties were relatively simple. On the other hand, there exist several theoretical models which assume a very simple hydrodynamic evolution, but treat the non-thermal particles and their emitted radiation with great detail. It was the aim of this work to include a detailed treatment of the non-thermal particles and their synchrotron radiation in high-resolution shock-capturing relativistic hydrodynamic (RHD) simulations. To achieve this goal we have developed a transport scheme for the non-thermal particles by treating them as "tracer" fluids in the RHD equations. Their temporal evolution is calculated using an analytic kinetic equation solver, and their synchrotron radiation is computed in a time-dependent manner taking into account the relevant relativistic effects, (e.g., light travel times to the observer). The energy density of a dynamically negligible magnetic field is assumed to be a fraction of the energy density of the thermal fluid. Two models have been developed for the parameterization of the acceleration of non-thermal particles at relativistic shocks: A type-E model where only the strength of the shock influences the number of accelerated particles and a type-N model where the shock strength only influences their energy distribution. We have demonstrated that our numerical method is able to capture the essentials of the temporal and spatial evolution of the non-thermal particles and the observed synchrotron radiation with a reasonable accuracy when applied to subparsec scale relativistic jets. Understanding the physical processes connected to the observed X-ray blazar light curves has been the main object of research with our new numerical tool. For the first time, the hydrodynamic evolution and the synchrotron radiation of a blazar jet was simulated consistently. We have simulated collisions of density inhomogeneities (shells) within a blazar jet. The results have shown that the efficiency of the observed synchrotron radiation varies with the relative velocities of the shells as well as with the amount of initially available mass. The surrounding medium plays an important role, because it heats up the shells prior to the collision, a fact which is neglected in simpler models. Assuming that the observed radiation results from the interaction of shells within a blazar jet, we have developed an analytic model which enables the determination of the unobservable parameters of the jets (i.e., length and velocity of the shells) from the light curve. The parameters predicted by the model have been compared to results of our simulations and we find that the agreement is surprisingly good, given the simplicity of the model. In addition, several long-term simulations of collisions of many shells have shown that a model of an intermittently working central engine seems to produce light curves more similar the observed ones than a model in which the central engine ejects a continuous outflow.
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Tools like a generalized *-product, a Leibniz rule and an integration needed for Analysis on Quantum Spaces such as n-dimensional q-deformed Euclidean space are constructed.
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Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde die Fluoreszenz von Hybridsystemen aus Gold Nanopartikeln und Farbstoffen zeitlich und spektral aufgelöst untersucht. Neben einer ultraschnellen Fluoreszenzemission, welche direkt von den Gold Nanopartikeln stammt, wurde insbesondere die dipolinduzierte Auslöschung der Fluoreszenz von Farbstoffen, welche auf der Partikeloberfläche chemisch gebunden sind, als Funktion der Partikelgröße und des Molekülabstandes untersucht. Hierzu wurden für drei verschiedene Farbstoffe Serien von Hybridsystemen hergestellt, in denen stets nur ein Parameter, nämlich die Nanopartikelgröße oder der Abstand des Farbstoffes, systematisch über eine Größenordnung geändert wird. Die experimentell bestimmten Transienten der Hybridsysteme zeigen, dass bereits die kleinsten Nanopartikel mit einem Radius von nur 1 nm die Quanteneffizienz bei einem Farbstoffabstand von 1 nm um 99,8 % verringern können. Des Weiteren wird nachgewiesen, dass die Quanteneffizienz der Farbstoffe sogar bis zu Abständen von 16 nm noch um über 50 % gesenkt ist. Eine derart hohe Auslöschungseffizienz wird in Energie-Transfer Systemen, welche nur aus organischen Farbstoffen bestehen, nicht erreicht. Gold Nanopartikel sind damit in der Tat viel versprechende Energieakzeptoren für eine zukünftige Generation von Nanosensoren. In dieser Arbeit kann zum ersten Mal die Ursache der effizienten Fluoreszenzauslöschung durch Gold Nanopartikel anhand der experimentellen Bestimmung der strahlenden und nichtstrahlenden Zerfallskanäle des Hybridsystems nachgewiesen werden. Sie resultiert aus einem strahlungslosen Energie-Transfer zum Partikel und einer gleichzeitigen Absenkung der strahlenden Rate des Farbstoffs. Die experimentell ermittelten strahlenden und nichtstrahlenden Raten der Hybridsysteme werden mit Modellrechnungen nach Gersten und Nitzan verglichen. Es zeigt sich, dass bei konstantem Molekülabstand, aber unterschiedlichen Partikelgrößen, eine qualitative Übereinstimmung der Messergebnisse mit den Modellvorhersagen vorliegt, die absoluten Energie-Transfer Raten sich jedoch um zwei Größenordnungen unterscheiden. Die Abweichung von den experimentellen Ergebnissen wird auf das Vorhandensein nichtlokaler Effekte zurückgeführt, welche im Modell nicht berücksichtigt, aber von aufwendigeren Modellierungen vorhergesagt werden. Bereits ohne oberflächengebundene Farbstoffe zeigen die experimentellen Ergebnisse eine Photonenemission aus Gold Nanopartikeln. Die Emission ist in ihrer spektralen Form der Plasmonresonanz sehr ähnlich und weist ebenfalls eine mit zunehmender Partikelgröße charakteristische Rotverschiebung auf. Gold Nanopartikel mit Radien von 1 – 30 nm zeigen, dass die Quanteneffizienz der Emission unabhängig von der Partikelgröße ist. Die quantitative sehr gute Übereinstimmung der Messergebnisse mit Modellrechnungen nach Shabhazyan et al. erlaubt zum ersten Mal eine mikroskopische Erklärung der verantwortlichen physikalischen Prozesse für die beobachtete Fluoreszenz. Sie wird als der strahlende Zerfall eines Partikelplasmons identifiziert: In den Gold Nanopartikeln rekombinieren optisch generierte d-Bandlöcher strahlungslos mit sp-Bandelektronen und emittieren dabei ein Partikelplasmon. Die Rate der Plasmonemission sinkt mit dem Volumen des Nanopartikels. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit dieser generierten Plasmonoszillation, strahlend via Photonenemission zu zerfallen, steigt wiederum mit dem Partikelvolumen. Die Quanteneffizienz des gesamten Prozesses ist daher unabhängig von der Partikelgröße. Sie ist um vier Größenordnungen über derjenigen einer direkten Aussendung eines Photons durch Rekombination von d-Bandlöchern mit sp-Bandelektronen an Goldfilmen. Der Grund liegt in der weitaus stärkeren Polarisierbarkeit und entsprechend höheren strahlenden Rate des Partikelplasmons gegenüber einzelnen Elektron-Loch Paaren.
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Die Dynamik von Makromolekülen spielt bei Transportprozessen in weicher Materie eine wichtige Rolle. Fluoreszenz-Korrelations-Spektroskopie (FCS) kann die Dynamik spezifisch fluoreszenzmarkierter Moleküle in Lösung verfolgen. Das Prinzip der Methode basiert auf der Analyse von Intensitätsfluktuationen innerhalb eines Volumens in der Größenordnung eines Femtoliters (1 fl = 1 Kubikmikrometer). In dieser Arbeit wurde mit FCS die Dynamik von DNA, Aktin und Hyaluronsäure untersucht. Die Schwerpunktsdiffusion in Lösung, die intramolekulare Kettendynamik und das Verhalten von Polymerlösungen im Scherfluss wurden studiert. Die Möglichkeit für Messungen der Dynamik an Grenzflächen wurde geschaffen. Die Autokorrelation fluoreszenzmarkierter DNA in Lösung zeigt auf verschiedenen Zeitskalen charakteristische Abfälle, die ihre Ursache in unterschiedlichen dynamischen Prozessen haben. Mit den in dieser Arbeit entwickelten Modellfunktionen für die Autokorrelation lassen sich die charakteristischen Größen der verschiedenen Prozesse durch Anpassung an die experimentellen Daten gewinnen. Bei kurzen Zeiten im Mikrosekundenbereich fällt die Korrelationsfunktion auf Grund photochemischer Prozesse der Fluoreszenzfarbstoffe exponentiell ab. Im Bereich von 10-100 Mikrosekunden zeigen die Daten einen weiteren Abfall, der stark von der Anzahl der Farbstoffe auf der Polymerkette abhängt. Die On-Off-Kinetik eines Ensembles von Fluorophoren wurde in ein Modell für die Korrelationsfunktion umgesetzt. Intensitätsfluktuationen im Bereich von 1 - 100 Millisekunden stammen von der Diffusion und den internen Relaxationsmoden der Polymerketten. Ein Modell für die Korrelationsfunktion der Schwerpunktsdiffusion für Polymerketten mit kontinuierlicher Farbstoffverteilung entlang der Kontur wurde entwickelt und mit experimentellen Daten von DNA-Fragmenten unterschiedlicher Länge (1019 bp bis 7250 bp) bestätigt. Ausgehend von den dynamischen Strukturfaktoren der Modelle von Rouse, Zimm und semiflexibler Ketten in Lösung wurden Korrelationsfunktionen für interne Relaxationen berechnet und an Messdaten mit Lambda-DNA (48502 bp) angepasst. Über den Abstand der Farbstoffe entlang der Polymerkontur werden Moden selektiert, deren Relaxationsdynamik sich in die Autokorrelationsfunktion überträgt. Bei Abständen, die viel größer als die Persistenzlänge der DNA sind, liefert das angepasste Modell die erwarteten Werte für die Zimm-Dynamik. Aktinfilamente mit Längen im Bereich von 100 Nanometern bis 50 Mikrometer wurden als Modellsysteme semiflexibler Polymere untersucht. Für Filamentlängen, die kleiner als das Beobachtungsvolumen sind, ist die Korrelationsfunktion bestimmt durch die Schwerpunktsdiffusion. Für längere Filamente dominieren die Biegemoden. Charakteristisch für diese Form der internen Relaxation ist das zeitliche Skalenverhalten mit dem Exponenten 3/4. Theoretische Korrelationsfunktionen, die in Zusammenarbeit mit Roland Winkler vom Forschungszentrum Jülich entstanden sind, zeigen eine sehr gute Übereinstimmung mit den experimentellen Daten. Erstmals wurden Korrelationsfunktionen einzelner Aktinfilamente im halbverdünnten Bereich gemessen. Die charakteristische Abfallzeit der Korrelationsfunktion als Maß für die Dynamik der Biegemoden sinkt mit steigender Aktinkonzentration. Für Aktinkonzentrationen von 0,01 mg/ml bis 1 mg/ml folgt die Abfallzeit einem Skalengesetz tau ~ c^(-0,48 +- 0,03). Neben der Diffusion wurde in dieser Arbeit die Dynamik in Strömungen untersucht. Zur Verfolgung von gerichteten Transportprozessen wurden zwei Foki mit einem lateralen Abstand von 5 Mikrometern erzeugt. Durch eine Kreuzkorrelation der beiden getrennten Intensitätssignale lässt sich die Zeit bestimmen, die die Teilchen zum Durchlaufen des Abstandes der beiden Foki benötigen. Mit dieser mikroskopischen "Lichtschranke" wurden Flussgeschwindigkeiten in einem 100 Mikrometer hohen Kanal mit mikrometergenauer Ortsauflösung gemessen. Die Scherverdünnung einer Hyaluronsäurelösung konnte anhand des Geschwindigkeitsprofils nachgewiesen und eine kritische Scherrate von 285 +- 30 s^(-1) bei einer Polymerkonzentration von 2,5 mg/ml bestimmt werden.
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In currently favoured scenarios, the Universe evolves from a highly homogeneous phase, emerging from the hot Big Bang, to the present-day state, which is characterised by a wealth of hierarchically organised structures, spanning several orders of magnitudes in size: galaxies, clusters of galaxies, superclusters, walls and filaments. Structures are formed via gravitational instability and grow hierarchically: the smallest ``haloes'' collapse first and then grow by accreting mass from other haloes or by merging with other similar structures. Gravitational and dynamical interactions, like mergers, accretions, tidal distortions and disruptions thus play a fundamental role in shaping galaxies and galaxy clusters. As a natural by-product of these interactions, stars, originally located within galaxies, are ejected into the space surrounding galaxies and into intracluster space, giving rise to diffuse stellar components. The study of these components can reveal important details of galaxy and cluster formation, and are therefore of great interest. Observations in this field are severely hampered by the extremely low surface brightness that has to be measured, corresponding to less than 1/1,000 of the typical surface brightness of the sky. So far, this has prevented observing large statistical samples of stellar haloes and intracluster stellar populations. The statistical characterisation of stellar haloes and of the intracluster light is the objective of this thesis. In order to do this, I have developed a new method in which a large number (approx. 1,000) of relatively shallow images of homogeneous objects are stacked to produce an extremely deep average image. Systematic effects that arise from contaminating sources and instrumental biases in the observation of individual objects are cancelled out by taking the average of many different observations and by adopting a conservative masking of the polluting sources. The large image database required for this technique has been provided by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, the largest optical survey of the Universe ever undertaken, which will eventually cover approximately 10,000 square degrees of sky with 5-band photometry and spectroscopy. In the first part of the thesis I have studied the stellar haloes of disc galaxies. From the stacking of 1043 galaxies I have been able to infer the almost ubiquitous presence of this component around discs, thus demonstrating that haloes are essential ingredients of galaxy evolution. On average, stellar haloes have power-law profiles, consistent with those of the Milky Way and M31. Their shape is moderately flattened. The average halo colours hint at old and fairly metal-enriched stars. However, a puzzling emission excess in the redmost bands has been measured that cannot be explained by any stellar emission, but suggests the presence of ionised gas. These results have been confirmed by the analysis of a galaxy, which has been observed by the Hubble Space Telescope in its deepest exposure (the Ultra Deep Field). The second part of the thesis is devoted to a study of the intracluster light (ICL) from the stacking of a sample of 683 clusters of galaxies in the redshift range 0.2--0.3. The average contribution of the ICL to the total light of a cluster is 17.5 +- 2.0% within 700 kpc from the cluster centre. The ICL is significantly more centrally concentrated than the light in galaxies, consistent with the idea that the ICL is formed via tidal stripping and disruption of galaxies that plunge deep into the cluster potential. The colours of the ICL are consistent with those of the cluster galaxies, thus indicating that the intracluster stars stem from the same population as the stars in galaxies. The amount of ICL correlates more strongly with the luminosity of the central galaxy of the cluster than with cluster richness. Furthermore, the ICL aligns more strongly with the central galaxy than with the larger scale galaxy distribution in the cluster. This strongly suggest that the mechanism of formation of the ICL is strongly coupled with the process of growth of the cluster central galaxy.
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The power of the Tully-Fisher relation as a tool of observational cosmology has long been acknowledged. However, all attempts of unravelling the evolution of disc galaxies at high redshift have proven inconclusive. We demonstrate how rotation curves measured at the rest-wavelength of H_alpha can successfully shed some light unto the topic. Our sample of 21 galaxies at a mean redshift of z=0.9, the most distant sample so far, consists of mainly large isophotally selected late disc galaxies comparable to the Milky Way. These are amongst the largest in terms of disc scale lengths even compared to local galaxies. From this we conclude that the appearance of large disc galaxies must lie further back than ~8Gyr. We find that these galaxies have much higher surface brightnesses (1.44mag) than a local set of galaxies with similar sizes. Their absolute magnitudes are only slightly brighter, though. Furthermore, combining the evolution in magnitude, size and surface brightness, we find that a scenario where galaxies grow inside-out is more consistent with the data than self-similar evolution. Moreover, the rotation velocities of the distant sample are systematically lower than the local sample, resulting in a lower average mass by a factor of ~2. The combination of those two effects results in an offset from the local Tully-Fisher relation of Delta_TF=-1.44mag towards brighter magnitudes. Compared to similar data in the literature we find a consistent picture for the evolution of the Tully-Fisher relation with redshift: Delta_TF=(0.19+-0.19)-(1.40+-0.32)z. Total source numbers in the individual redshift bins are too small even taking all the available data together to meaningfully constrain the slope of the Tully-Fisher relation at high redshifts. The observed offset from the Tully-Fisher relation is in good agreement with the offset derived from numerical simulations by Steinmetz and Navarro (1999) at a redshift z~1.
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The work presented here deals with the age structure in globular cluster systems of early-type galaxies and aims at further clues about the formation and evolution of these galaxies. Hereby we turn our attention mainly to the detection of age sub-populations within the globular cluster systems, which are a clear signature of multiple star formation events and describe the major phases in the evolutionary history of the host galaxy. The basic ingredients to our semi-numerical approach are combined optical and near-infrared observations of various globular cluster systems and Single Stellar Population models. Besides the introduction and the test of our semi-numerical method of deriving the age structure in globular cluster systems we are also interested in investigating an extended galaxy sample, i.e. their globular cluster systems in order to find systematic dependencies of the age structure. Since Single Stellar Population models are crucial for our project and various of these models are available we also to evcaluate the influence of our choice of SSP model on the final result.
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In this thesis, we use a variety of high resolution cosmological $N$--body simulations to study the formation and evolution of highly non--linear objects in our universe. In Chapter~2, we study the systematics of dark matter subhalo populations. For the first time, we give a picture for the evolution of subhalo populations: a substantial fraction of the mass of most haloes has been added at relatively recent redshifts, and this mass is accreted in clumpy form with a halo mass distribution similar to that of the Universe as a whole. Since tidal stripping rapidly reduces the mass of subhaloes, the population at any given mass is dominated by objects which fell in recently and so had lower mass (and thus more abundant) progenitors. The orbits of recently accreted objects spend most of their time in the outer halo, so that subhaloes of given mass are substantially less centrally concentrated than the dark matter as a whole. Subhaloes which are seen near halo centre have shorter period orbits and so must have fallen in earlier. They thus retain a relatively small fraction of their initial mass. Our results suggest that any comparison with galaxies in real clusters is only possible if the formation of the luminous component is modelled appropriately. Extending the work of Chapter~2, in Chapter~3 we study the relationship between the subhalo and the galaxy population by combining $10$ high resolution resimulations of cluster--sized dark haloes with semi--analytic galaxy formation modelling. In particular, we compare the number density and velocity profiles of cluster galaxies and those of subhaloes. While the radial distribution of galaxies follows closely that of the dark matter, the distribution of dark matter subhaloes is much less centrally concentrated. We find there is a complex and strongly position--dependent relation between galaxies and the subhaloes in which they reside. This relation can be properly modelled only by appropriate physical representation of the galaxy formation process. In Chapter~4, we study the assembly of the central cusps of $\Lambda$CDM haloes. The primary conclusion is that the inner cores of galaxies tend to a universal density profile for their collisionless mixture of stars and dark matter through multiple mergers. Our result may alleviate some apparent challenges to the CDM model for structure formation. Firstly, it could in principle explain the observed absence of a cusp in the central dark matter distribution of nearby galaxies and galaxy clusters. Secondly, it would allow consistency of the comoving number density of massive haloes as a function of velocity dispersion with SDSS observations of the counts of galaxies as a function of stellar velocity dispersion. In the final Chapter, we have carried out a sequence of $N$--body resimulations of individual haloes at various redshifts within a {\em cosmological volume} $(0.68{\rm Gpc})^3$ with the aim of resolving the first bound objects which could potentially host the first stars in a cold dark matter dominated universe. Our simulations succeed in resolving rare but relatively massive haloes spanning a very broad redshift range[$z=80$, $z=0$] with ultra-high resolution. The highest resolution achieved in our final level simulation has a particle mass of $0.8{\rm M_{\odot}}$ and a force softening of $\epsilon=7.8$pc in comoving units. Our results indicate that initial structure formation was extremely strongly biased to overdense regions, and that this can be well understood within the framework of extended Press-Schechter(EPS) theory. The internal structure of these early haloes are quite similar to their low redshift counterparts, although the NFW profile does not fit as well. The halo mass function is examined at redshift $z=50$ and $z=30$. We find an excellent agreement between the predictions and the simulations. Because our simulation volume is not a small periodic box we are able to simulate rarer and more massive halos at any given redshift than previous work. We find that bound--free cooling from atomic hydrogen can take place in haloes as early as $z=32$ and that the comoving abundance of these halos is predicted to be the same as for $10^{14}h^{-1}{\rm M_\odot}$ halos today. If the first stars did form in haloes with mass $\sim 10^6{\rm M_\odot}$, a large number would be born already at $z \sim 45$ with a comoving abundance matching that of haloes with mass $M_*$ today.
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The models of a strongly-driven micromaser and a one-atom laser are developed. Their analytical solutions are obtained by means of phase space techniques. It is shown how to exploit the model of a one-atom laser for simultaneous generation and monitoring of the decoherence of the atom-field "Schrödinger cat" states. The similar machinery applied to the problem of the generation of the maximally-entangled states of two atoms placed inside an optical cavity permits its analytical solution. The steady-state solution of the problem exhibits a structure in which the two-atom maximally-entangled state correlates with the vacuum state of the cavity. As a consequence, it is demonstrated that the atomic maximally-entangled state, depending on a coupling regime, can be produced via a single or a sequence of no-photon measurements. The question of the implementation of a quantum memory device using a dispersive interaction between the collective internal ground state of an atomic ensemble and two orthogonal modes of a cavity is addressed. The problem of quantum state reconstruction in the context of cavity quantum electrodynamics is considered. The optimal operational definition of the Wigner function of a cavity field is worked out. It is based on the Fresnel transform of the atomic invertion of a probe atom. The general integral transformation for the Wigner function reconstruction of a particle in an arbitrary symmetric potential is derived.